How Fiber Optics Was Invented

Fiber optics is the contained transmission of light through long fiber rods of either glass or plastics. The light travels by process of internal reflection. The core medium of the rod or cable is more reflective than the material surrounding the core. That causes the light to keep being reflected back into the core where it can continue to travel down the fiber. Fiber optic cables are used for transmitting voice, images, and other data at close to the speed of light. Who Invented Fiber Optics? Corning Glass researchers  Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, and Peter Schultz  invented fiber optic wire or Optical Waveguide Fibers (patent #3,711,262) capable of carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire, through which information carried by a pattern of light waves could be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away.   Fiber optic communication methods and materials invented by  them opened the door to the commercialization of fiber optics. From long-distance telephone service to the internet and medical devices such as the endoscope, fiber optics are now a major part of modern life.   Timeline 1854: John Tyndall demonstrated to the Royal Society that light could be conducted through a curved stream of water, proving that a light signal could be bent.1880:  Alexander Graham Bell invented his Photophone, which transmitted a voice signal on a beam of light. Bell focused sunlight with a mirror and then talked into a mechanism that vibrated the mirror. At the receiving end, a detector picked up the vibrating beam and decoded it back into a voice the same way a phone did with electrical signals. However, many things — a cloudy day, for instance — could interfere with the Photophone, causing Bell to stop any further research with this invention.1880: William Wheeler invented a system of light pipes lined with a highly reflective coating that illuminated homes by using light from an electric arc lamp placed in the basement and directing the light around the home with the pipes.1888: The medical team of Roth and Reuss of Vienna used bent glass rods to illuminate bod y cavities.1895: French engineer Henry Saint-Rene designed a system of bent glass rods for guiding light images in an attempt at early television.1898: American David Smith applied for a patent on a bent glass rod device to be used as a surgical lamp.1920s: Englishman John Logie Baird and American Clarence W. Hansell patented the idea of using arrays of transparent rods to transmit images for television and facsimiles respectively.1930: German medical student Heinrich Lamm was the first person to assemble a bundle of optical fibers to carry an image. Lamms goal was to look inside inaccessible parts of the body. During his experiments, he reported transmitting the image of a light bulb. The image was of poor quality, however. His effort to file a patent was denied because of Hansells British patent.1954: Dutch scientist Abraham Van Heel and British scientist Harold H. Hopkins separately wrote papers on imaging bundles. Hopkins reported on imaging bundles of unclad fibers while Van He el reported on simple bundles of clad fibers. He covered a bare fiber with a transparent cladding of a lower refractive index. This protected the fiber reflection surface from outside distortion and greatly reduced interference between fibers. At the time, the greatest obstacle to a viable use of fiber optics was in achieving the lowest signal (light) loss.1961: Elias Snitzer of American Optical published a theoretical description of single-mode fibers, a fiber with a core so small it could carry light with only one waveguide mode. Snitzers idea was okay for a medical instrument looking inside the human, but the fiber had a light loss of one decibel per meter. Communications devices needed to operate over much longer distances and required a light loss of no more than ten or 20 decibels (a measurement of light) per kilometer.1964: A critical (and theoretical) specification was identified by Dr. C.K. Kao for long-range communication devices. The specification was ten or 20 decibels o f light loss per kilometer, which established the standard. Kao also illustrated the need for a purer form of glass to help reduce light loss.1970: One team of researchers began experimenting with fused silica, a material capable of extreme purity with a high melting point and a low refractive index. Corning Glass researchers Robert Maurer, Donald Keck, and Peter Schultz invented fiber optic wire or Optical Waveguide Fibers (patent #3,711,262) capable of carrying 65,000 times more information than copper wire. This wire allowed for information carried by a pattern of light waves to be decoded at a destination even a thousand miles away. The team had solved the problems presented by Dr. Kao.1975: The United States government decided to link the computers at the NORAD headquarters at Cheyenne Mountain using fiber optics to reduce interference.1977: The first optical telephone communication system was installed about 1.5 miles under downtown Chicago.  Each optical fiber carried the e quivalent of 672 voice channels.By the end of the century, more than 80 percent of the worlds long-distance traffic was carried over optical fiber cables and 25 million kilometers of the cable. Maurer, Keck, and Schultz-designed cables have been installed worldwide. U.S. Army Signal Corp The following information was submitted by Richard Sturzebecher. It was originally published in the Army Corp publication Monmouth Message. In 1958, at the U.S. Army Signal Corps Labs in Fort Monmouth New Jersey, the manager of Copper Cable and Wire hated the signal transmission problems caused by lightning and water. He encouraged Manager of Materials Research Sam DiVita to find a replacement for copper wire. Sam thought glass, fiber, and light signals might work, but the engineers who worked for Sam told him a glass fiber would break. In September 1959, Sam DiVita asked 2nd Lt. Richard Sturzebecher if he knew how to write the formula for a glass fiber capable of transmitting light signals. DiVita had learned that Sturzebecher, who was attending the Signal School, had melted three triaxial glass systems using SiO2 for his 1958 senior thesis at Alfred University. Sturzebecher knew the answer. While using a microscope to measure the index-of-refraction on SiO2 glasses, Richard developed a severe headache. The 60 percent and 70 percent SiO2 glass powders under the microscope allowed higher and higher amounts of brilliant white light to pass through the microscope slide and into his eyes. Remembering the headache and the brilliant white light from high SiO2 glass, Sturzebecher knew that the formula would be ultra pure SiO2. Sturzebecher also knew that Corning made high purity SiO2 powder by oxidizing pure SiCl4 into SiO2. He suggested that DiVita use his power to award a federal contract to Corning to develop the fiber. DiVita had already worked with Corning research people. But he had to make the idea public because all research laboratories had a right to bid on a federal contract. So in 1961 and 1962, the idea of using high purity SiO2 for a glass fiber to transmit light was made public information in a bid solicitation to all research laboratories. As expected, DiVita awarded the contract to Corning Glass Works in Corning, New York in 1962. Federal funding for glass fiber optics at Corning was about $1,000,000 between 1963 and 1970. Signal Corps Federal funding of many research programs on fiber optics continued until 1985, thereby seeding this industry and making todays multibillion-dollar industry that eliminates copper wire in communications a reality. DiVita continued to come to work daily at the U.S. Army Signal Corps in his late 80s and volunteered as a consultant on nanoscience until his death at age 97 in 2010.

A Medical Revolution Essay - 1547 Words

In the spring of 1918, the first wave of one of the deadliest influenza pandemics began plaguing its victims (Peters, ix). Over the span of three lethal waves, the pandemic claimed approximately forty million victims, eradicating nearly twenty percent of the entire world’s population, or about one out of five individuals (Peters, ix). To make matters more dire, the ill-suited medical community was exceptionally unprepared for such a wide-scale pandemic: Doctors had very basic tools, knew little about diseases, and had no experience with vaccinations or prevention (Peters, 1-5; â€Å"The 1920s: Medicine and Health: Overview†, n.p.). People blindly faced the epidemic, relying on folk remedies such as consuming wine, drinking antiseptic, and†¦show more content†¦Although doctors were supposed to be considered medical experts, they were not taken seriously due to the fact that a patient had less than a fifty percent chance of benefiting from a doctor’s vi sit (â€Å"The 1920s: Medicine and Health: Overview†, n.p.). Doctors struggled to diagnose and fix medical problems due to inexperience and lack of tools (â€Å"The 1920s: Medicine and Health: Overview†, n.p.). As a result of the substandard medical community, maternal deaths and child deaths were commonplace, while simple sicknesses often turned into fatal infections (â€Å"The 1920s: Medicine and Health: Overview†, n.p.). When the first wave of the influenza pandemic struck in the spring of 1918, the medical community was taken aback by the pandemic’s unpredicted wrath (Peters, 13). The typically mellow influenza virus, characterized by familiar symptoms of fever, headache, fatigue, cough, sore throat, congestion, and body aches, claimed victims within hours (Peters, ix, 1-5). This was a sickness like no other, and it left the medical community baffled. Doctors nor medical experts knew what the sickness was, why it was spreading, what was causing it, or how to fix it (Peters, 1-5). All branches of the medical field practically shut down: researchers found no potentialShow MoreRelatedIndustrial Revolution Essay799 Words   |  4 PagesWas the Industrial Revolution a blessing or a curse?   Ã‚  Ã‚   Starting in 18th century Great Britain, the Industrial Revolution, sparked a change in industry that is still present today. The Industrial Revolution was a great blessing to society, with innovations in consumer goods, medicine, housing and sanitation, the revolution changed the course of history for the good. The Industrial revolution was a period in which Great Britain became rapidly less rural and became more urban and mechanized. â€Å"TheRead MoreMedicinal Practices from the American Revolution to the War of 18121308 Words   |  5 PagesMedicinal Practices; American Revolution to the War of 1812 For centuries, war has consumed millions of souls. It has caused heartache and has torn families apart. Today, properly educated doctors and nurses can treat wounds and injuries with proper care, but this taken for granted assistance wasn’t always readily available. In the Revolutionary War and the War of 1812, nearly 30,000 American soldiers died. 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Strategic Alliance Between Nokia and Microsoft Free Essays

Business Administration knowledge assists the implementation of the strategic alliance between Nokia and Microsoft from several aspects. To begin with, decisions about leadership are one of the most disturbing problems in the strategic alliance; interim leaders are appropriate solutions to the issue (Werther, 1998). Interim leaders are those haired from a third party, not belonging to the alliance partners. We will write a custom essay sample on Strategic Alliance Between Nokia and Microsoft or any similar topic only for you Order Now Compared to selecting a leader from one of the partners, interim leaders have their advantages. It eliminates the assumption from both the public and the employees that one party has the domination, which assists to build a neutral image of the alliance (Werther, 1998). Therefore, Nokia and Microsoft are in a fairly equivalent position in the alliance. Moreover, their focus is the success of the alliance rather than the benefits of one of the alliance parties (either Nokia or Microsoft). Compared to outside consultants, interim leaders also have more merits. Werther (1998) suggests that interim leaders have operational or practical authority instead of advising authority owned by consultants, and they are suitable in the start-up stage of the alliance. As the alliance between Nokia and Microsoft has just begun, interim leaders can be helpful. Interim leaders contribute to distinguishing between â€Å"actual values that are ‘in use’ from stated or ‘espoused’ values that are merely touted for internal or external consumption† (Argyriset al, 1985; cited in Werther, 1998, p. 342). Thus, Nokia and Microsoft should select an interim leader from the third party rather from themselves. In addition, information flow management including intellectual property protection is crucial to the success of the alliance. Microsoft is the leading software company in the world, and Nokia has been the leading phone manufacturer all over the world. Thus, the value of intangible information can be even greater than tangible assets companies own. However, partners are often in a dilemmatic situation where they want to balance the outflow of information to successfully achieve the task and the protection of intellectual asset (Osborn et al, 2001). The careful management of information is of great importance. Firstly, alliance managers need to have a clear understanding of partner’s intention of learning and the extent to which partners are willing to learn from cooperators (Ireland et al, 2002). Then, suitable organizational control like â€Å"integrating mechanisms and use of interest-aligning incentive plans† (Geringer Herbert, 1989; Kumar Seth, 1998; cited in Ireland et al, 2002, p. 437) can be used to manage information flow. When it comes to intellectual property protection, both Microsoft and Nokia should think about the value of the company’s intellectual asset and decide the key components that belong to inadvertent transfer. In this case, Microsoft may need to have a consideration of the safety of core techniques involved in providing the operating system. Moreover, Gadieshet al (2002) emphasize the necessity to have an intellectual property audit internally before alliance, with companies whose central capital consist of intellectual property. Lastly, building trust between partners also contributes to the success of strategic alliance. Trust means that the partner’s behaviours will meet expectations, and it leads partners to bear risks and produces a positive effect on the alliance (Ireland et al, 2002). Continuing to show the company’s goals for strategic alliance while partners do the same and demonstrate patience are important actions in building trust (Cullen et al, 2000; cited in Ireland et al, 2002, p. 38). As the problems are usually clearer to middle managers and engineers who experience every day alliance activities (Osborn et al, 2001), thus, the trust and communication building between these people from Microsoft and Nokia cannot be ignored. All in all, experts and managers with sophisticated business administration knowledge are required to implement these tasks. The successes of these aspects contribute to the success of the strategic alliance. How to cite Strategic Alliance Between Nokia and Microsoft, Papers

A Balanced Budget Essay Example For Students

A Balanced Budget? Essay A Balanced Budget?This year President Clinton will submit his proposed legislation for theFederal Budget to Congress. The fact that we have divided government (ex.,Democratic President, Republican majority in Congress) means the majority ofthat legislation wont make it through the first ten minutes of a Congressionalsession. The President in turn will veto legislation presented to him byCongress. The whole situation is a vicious, never ending circle. Each side islooking out for their own best interests, and after years, even decades of thisthe United States has a huge budget deficit. Is there a solution to all thismadness? Is it feasible to balance the Federal Budget? Every politician onCapitol Hill claims to have the answer. The Federal Government goes as far toemploy some of the most renowned economists in the world to try to solve thedeficit mess, and they still havent figured it out. The budget simulation exercise by The Committee for a ResponsibleFederal Budget provided choices Congress has to use as its guide for theupcoming year. How hard can it be to balance the budget I thought? After doingthe exercised I realized the title of the simulation exercise, The FY 1997Budget: An Exercise in Hard Choices, could not have been more appropriate. Itis possible though to balance the Federal Budget, provided you follow 3 simplerules. First you must decide what you feel is important, then cut withoutconsciousness, and if that doesnt work, alter your baseline. Important ChoicesWhen deciding on what I thought was important to protect in the budget,I felt like a politician myself. I protected my own self interests. First up wasDefense. The fact that I am in the Marine Officer Program weighed heavily on mydecision to increase Defense spending by 17.6 billion (all amounts in billions,unless noted), following the Congressional Budget Resolution. The Presidentsplan just didnt provide enough capital, the Congressional BlackCaucus/Progressive Caucus would basically wipe out my career before it evenstarts, and I just can not have that. Next up is Education. Without the directstudent loan program, I would have no way to fund my education other than goingto some bank and going through the demeaning process of begging a loan officerto lend me money for school. I feel a sense of loyalty to the President on thisissue, because without this program I would still be doing concrete constructionback home in Indiana. As a result, I voted to increase Education al spending33.4.My other concern or problem area is Administration of Justice. Crime is wayout of control in this country. There has to be an end. I voted to increasespending 23.6, opting for the Presidents budget because it provides enoughcapital to temporarily combat the problem. You might be thinking, wow this fooljust increased the deficit by 74.6, but unless are borders are protected, arechildren educated, and until we can feel safe in our homes at night, thiscountry wont realize its potential. International ; Domestic SpendingAt this point, the deficit stands at 883.6 (809 billion beginning +current spending). It is time to cut the waste. First, International Affairsrequires attention. Does the United States really need to fund every countrysstruggle? I dont think so, so I agree with the Budget Resolution ConferenceAgreement (BRCA), and I vote to cut 12.4. Next on the list, General Science, Space and Technology. I vote todiscontinue the Space Station Program. As the report says, scientists have lostinterest so why keep funding it. Another 11.2 by the wayside. The Energy issue is a complex one, but nevertheless the DOE has to go. Jackie Robinson EssayUnfortunately there happens to be some programs that need money. First,I chose to spend 117 billion on giving tax credits for Families/Children, optingfor the Presidents budget. I voted to repeal the 4.3 cent motor fuels tax,spending 2.9. Finally, I spent 15.6 to Provide Tax Incentives for Long TermCare Insurance. All this spending on revenues cost me 187.2 billion. My rationalbehind my spending, is once again in my own self interest, for if I was a Memberof Congress, with all the cuts I have made, I have to give back a little. Balanced?Will the budget balance? Before the exercise began there was an 809billion deficit. I spent 209.3 billion, on a total of 6 different programs. Icut 1048.7 billion from 18 different recipients of federal dollars. This amountsto a balanced budget. Total Deficit Reduction from Policy changes equaled838.7(all amounts in billions). Interest savings amounted to 83.87. Totaldeficit reduction, 992.57. Add in the baseline budget deficit of 809 billionfrom the previous year. 113.57 remains. Policy changes totaled at 718.7. Spending changes as a percentage ended up 85.7%. Finally revenue changesfinished at 14.31%. Is it feasible to balance the Federal Budget? It is if it is a game orassignment. Dealing with issues that effect individuals from all walks of lifeis almost impossible. I cut all but a few categories under International Domestic Spending. It is not realistic in the real world. Cutting funding forone program not only effects those involved, but inadvertently effects others. An example would be cutting welfare benefits. With no money, no job, and nofuture prospects, an individual might result to crime, whether selling narcoticsor robbery, in order to support their family. The decisions that the Presidentmakes in preparing a budget have to be overwhelming. In Congress, individualdecisions are more anonymous. The records are accessible, but who reallyremembers how an individual Member of Congress voted. How many taxpayers knowwhat a baseline is. The President and Congress each uses their own baseline, ithelps them justify spending or cuts. Until the President and Congress can agreeto bal ance the budget, cut waste, and quit talking about it, there will be adeficit. Works CitedExercise In Hard Choices. Committee for a Responsible Federal Budget. July 1996. History